Author, Year | Age Group | Outcomes (Measuring Instruments) | Adj. for Covariates | Intervention Effects |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ducheyne et al., 2014 [47] | Children | Cycling skills (objective: practical cycling test); AST: min of cycling to school (subjective: questionnaire); Psychosocial factors: attitudes towards cycling (subjective: questionnaire) | Baseline values of age, distance from home to school | Total basic cycling skills (adj.): group difference from pre to post, pre to follow-up and pre to post to follow-up with greater increase in IG(I/I + P) (p < 0.001, respectively), n.s. group difference from post to follow-up with greater increase in CG Min of cycling to school last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post, pre to follow-up and pre to post to follow-up, group difference from post to follow-up with decrease in IG(I/I + P) and increase in CG (p < 0.05) Parental attitudes towards cycling (adj.): n.s. group difference at any time point in importance/encouragement of cycling to school, importance of cycling skills/cycle training, encouragement of cycling skills improvement, impact of cycling training course on safer cycling behaviors in real traffic situations, and feeling of safety when cycling in traffic |
Huang et al., 2018 [49] | Psychosocial factors: self-efficacy, outcome expectations (subjective: questionnaire) | Race/ethnicity, age, BMI z-score, bike score, sex/ gender, neighborhood disorder, distance from home to school | Child self-efficacy (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 0.84 [CI95: 0.37, 1.31]) with increase in IG (β = 0.40 [CI95: 0.05, 0.75]) and decrease in CG (p < 0.05; β = − 0.43 [CI95: − 0.76, −0.11]) Parental self-efficacy (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 0.46 [CI95: 0.05, 0.86]) with increase in IG (β = 0.21 [CI95: − 0.09, 0.51]) and decrease in CG (n.s.; β = − 0.25 [CI95: − 0.52, 0.03]) Parental outcome expectations (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 0.47 [CI95: 0.17, 0.76]) with increase in IG (β = 0.14 [CI95: − 0.07, 0.36]) and decrease in CG (p < 0.05; β = − 0.32 [CI95: − 0.52, − 0.12]) | |
Mendoza et al., 2017 [50] | AST: % of daily cycling trips to school (subjective: questionnaire); PA levels: MVPA (total, cycling, before/after school) in av. min/day (objective: accelerometer, GPS units) | Race/ethnicity, age, bike score, BMI z-score, sex/gender, neighborhood disorder, distance from home to school, accelerometer wear time | % of daily cycling trips to school (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 44.9 [CI95: 26.8, 63.0]) with greater increase in IG (n.s.; β = 0.10 [CI95: − 0.02, 0.23]) Total MVPA in av. min/day (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 21.6 [CI95: 8.7, 34.6]) with increase in IG and decrease in CG (n.s.; β = − 4.8 [CI95: − 13.6, 4.0]) Cycling MVPA in av. min/day (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 23.0 [CI95: 10.7, 35.4]) with decrease in CG (n.s.; β = − 1.6 [CI95: − 10.0, 6.8]) Before/after school MVPA in av. min/day (adj.): group difference from pre to post (p < 0.05; β = 12.8 [CI95: 8.5, 17.2]) with decrease in CG (n.s.; β = − 0.9 [CI95: − 3.8, 2.1]) | |
Østergaard et al., 2015 [45] | PA levels: LTPA beyond AST (subjective: questionnaire); AST: frequency of long/short-term school cycling (trips) (subjective: questionnaire); AT: frequency of cycling beyond school (subjective: questionnaire); Physical fitness (CRF): aerobic capacity (objective: Andersen test); Weight status: BMI (objective: digital scale, stadiometer) | Age, baseline BMI, baseline value, sex/ gender | LTPA beyond AST (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG (β = − 0.09 [CI95: − 0.21, 0.03]) Frequency of long-term school cycling (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG (β = − 0.02 [CI95: − 0.10, 0.05]) Frequency of short-term school cycling trips last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with increase in IG (β = 0.15 [CI95: − 0.25, 0.54]) Frequency of cycling beyond school last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG (β = − 0.04 [CI95: − 0.14, 0.05]) Aerobic capacity (adj.): group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG (p < 0.001; β = − 1.45 [CI95: − 1.92, − 1.00]) BMI (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with increase in IG (β = 0.01 [CI95: − 0.13, 0.15]) Risk of developing overweight/obesity (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with increase in IG (OR = 0.88 [CI95: 0.50, 1.57]) Dose response association between cycling to school and total intensity (adj.): n.s. | |
Villa-González et al., 2015 [51] | AST: mode/frequency of (active) trips to school (subjective: questionnaire) | Sex/gender, age, distance from home to school, pre/post AST variables, attendance | Mode of trips to school last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post in walking with greater increase in CG and biking with decrease in CG and no change in IG, group difference from post to follow-up in walking only with increase in IG and decrease in CG (p = 0.004) Frequency of active trips to school last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post in walking and cycling with greater increase in CG, group difference from post to follow-up in walking and cycling with increase in IG and decrease in CG (p = 0.019) | |
Villa-González et al., 2017 [52] | AST: mode/frequency of (active) trips to school (subjective: questionnaire); Physical fitness: CRF (VO2max, 20-m shuttle run test), muscular fitness (standing long jump, handgrip strength), speed agility (4 × 10 shuttle run test) (objective: ALPHA health-related fitness test battery) | Age, distance | Mode of trips to school last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post in walking, group difference from pre to post in cycling with increase in IG for male only and decrease in CG for male (p = 0.04) Frequency of active trips to school last wk. (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post CRF (adj.): group difference from pre to post in VO2max with increase in CG for male only and decrease in IG for male and 20-m shuttle run test with increase in CG for male only and no change in IG for male (p < 0.05, respectively) Muscular fitness (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post in standing long jump, group difference in handgrip strength with increase in CG in male only and decrease in IG for male (p < 0.05) Speed agility (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post in 4 × 10 shuttle run test | |
Børrestad et al., 2012 [44] | Children/ Adolescents | Physical fitness (CRF): VO2peak (objective: cycle ergometer), HRpeak (objective: heart rate monitor); Weight status: BMI, overweight (objective: beam scale, stationmeter); AST: start cycling (subjective: questionnaire) | Baseline level, sex/gender, age | VO2peak (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post (d = − 0.13) with increase in IG [CI95: 47.5, 51.8] and CG [CI95: 48.5, 52.8] HRpeak (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post (d = 0.03) with increase in IG [CI95: 189.4, 197.5] and decrease in CG [CI95: 189.2, 197.2] BMI (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post (d = 0.01) with no change in IG [CI95: 18.5, 19.1] and increase in CG [CI95: 18.3, 13.9] Overweight (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG [CI95: 8.0, 33.7] and increase in CG [CI95: 7.7, 34.6] Start cycling last 3 mos: n.s. group difference from pre to post with greater increase in IG [CI95: 50.1, 88.2] than CG [CI95: 20.9, 60.5] |
Christiansen et al., 2014 [46] | AST: total no. of active trips to school (subjective: transport diary); Psychosocial factors: perceived route safety to school, encouragement of cycling to school, attitude towards cycling (subjective: questionnaire) | Age, baseline proportion of AST, distance to school, sex/ gender | Total no. of active trips to school for previous day over 5 days (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with increase in IG and CG (OR = 1.27 [CI95: 0.81, 1.99]), n.s. gender effect with increase in male in IG and CG Perceived route safety to school of student (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG and increase in CG (OR = 0.87 [CI95: 0.50, 1.51]) Parental encouragement of cycling to school (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with increase in IG and CG (OR = 1.26 [CI95: 0.92, 1.73]) Student attitude towards cycling (adj.): n.s. group difference from pre to post with decrease in IG and CG (OR = 1.50, [CI95: 0.90, 2.50]) | |
Gutierrez et al., 2014 [48] | AST: counts of intersection crossings (objective: observation); Psychosocial factors: perception of safety, attitudes/beliefs towards AST (subjective: questionnaire) | NR | Counts of intersection crossings: n.s. group difference from pre to post in AST trends with increase in IG and CG, n.s. between-intersection effects from pre to post in no. of crossing guards (\( {\upeta}_{\mathrm{p}}^2 \) = 0.00), experimental intersections (\( {\upeta}_{\mathrm{p}}^2 \) = 0.00) or interaction of experimental and supervised intersections (\( {\upeta}_{\mathrm{p}}^2 \) = 0.01), increase in usage of supervised intersections in IG and CG (p = 0.041; \( {\upeta}_{\mathrm{p}}^2 \) = 0.08) Parental perception of safety: no change (n.s.) Parental attitudes/beliefs towards AST: no change (n.s.) |