Table 3 Results of studies testing the association between parental education and leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) in adults

-Johnson (2011) [20]

Correlation and regression coefficients for 6-point LTPA score and years of parental education.

r = 0.08 (+)

None

-UK; Lothian Birth Cohort 1936

β = 0.03 (ns)

Own education, own occupational class & more

-1091; 70+ Yrs.

-Silverwood (2012) [33]

Prevalence of LTPA (low/gardening/sport & leisure), walking and cycling during work & for pleasure (high, low) in four groups of paternal education (1. secondary and greater 2. secondary only or primary and further education or greater 3. primary and further education with no qualifications attained 4. primary only).

1–4:

None

-UK; MRC National Survey of Health & Development

Sport & leisure (♂) = 14.5 %

(+, p < 0.001)

-≥ 3100; 31–53 years.

Sport & leisure (♀) = 20.9 %

(+, p < 0.001)

Walking (High) (♂) = −21.6 %

(−, p < 0.001)

Walking (High) (♀) = −8.8 %

(−, p < 0.001)

-Kuh & Cooper (1992) [34]

Prevalence of most active in sports & recreational activities in 4 groups of parental education (1. secondary & greater 2. secondary only or primary & further education or greater 3. primary & further education with no qualifications attained 4. primary only).

1–4:

None

-UK; MRC NSHD

♂ (father) = 12 % (+, p < 0.01)

-> 2850; 36 years.

♀ (father) = 21.3 % (+, p < 0.001)

♂ (mother) = 2 % (+, p < 0.001)

♀ (mother) = 19 % (+, p < 0.001)

-2144; 36 years.

Odds of most active in sport & recreational activities comparing three highest groups of maternal education to the lowest group.

Odds Ratios:

1 vs. 4 = 1.24 (0.99; 1.55} (ns)

Own education, sex, childhood health, personality, and ability at games

2 vs. 4 = 1.52 (1.22; 1.91} (+)

3 vs. 4 = 1.24 (1.02; 1.50} (+)

-Pinto Pereira (2014) [35]

Odds of low LTPA comparing those with two minimally schooled parents to those without.

Odds Ratios:

-UK; National Child Development Study 1958 (NCDS)

age 33 = 1.26 {1.15; 1.37} (+)

None

Age 42 = 1.28 {1.18; 1.38} (+)

-12,776 had ≥ one measure of LTPA; 33, 42, 50 year.

Age 50 = 1.42 {1.29; 1.57} (+)

Age 33 = 1.14 {1.04; 1.26} (+)

Sex

Age 42 = 1.13 {1.03; 1.24} (+)

Age 50 = 1.22 {1.10; 1.35} (+)

Age 33 = 1.05 {0.95; 1.16} (ns)

Sex, parental education, aptitude household amenities, cognition, lifestyle factors age 16, & more

Age 42 = 1.03 {0.94; 1.13} (ns)

Age 50 = 1.13 {1.01; 1.25} (+)

Age 33 = 1.02 {0.92; 1.13} (ns)

As above plus own education, own social class, BMI, mental health, number of children in the household, limiting illness

Age 42 = 1.00 {0.91; 1.10} (ns)

Age 50 = 1.07 {0.96; 1.19} (ns)

-Kvaavik (2011) [40]

Regression coefficients for LTPA per increase in parental education (college/university/>12 years, high/comprehensive school/12 years, high school/10 year, 1 year of technical college/8–9 years, elementary school/7 years).

β (estimated from figures):

-Norway; Oslo Youth Study

Age 25 (father) ≈ 0.06 (ns)

Sex, whether participated in school health education intervention

-240–407^♂; 25, 33, 40 year.

Age 33 (father) ≈ 0.12 (+)

Age 40 (father) ≈ 0.01 (ns)

Age 25 (mother) ≈ 0.05 (ns)

Age 33 (mother) ≈ 0.12 (+)

Age 40 (mother) ≈ −0.06 (ns)

Age 25 (father) ≈ 0.01 (ns)

As above plus own education

Age 33 (father) ≈ 0.05 (ns)

Age 40 (father) ≈ 0.01 (ns)

Age 25 (mother) ≈ −0.01 (ns)

Age 33 (mother) ≈ 0.06 (ns)

Age 40 (mother) ≈ −0.01 (ns)

-Makinen (2009) [44]

Odds of inactivity and moderate LTPA relative to high LTPA by parental education (secondary, middle, primary) with secondary education used as reference category.

ORs (primary vs. secondary):

Age

-Finland; Health 2000 Survey

Inactivity (♂) = 1.10 (ns)

-6492; 30+ Yrs.

Inactivity (♀) = 1.56 (+)

Moderate LTPA (♂) = 1.45 (ns)

Moderate LTPA (♀) = 1.37 (ns)

-Leino (1999) [46]

Prevalence of physical inactivity in three groups of parental education (1. >12 years 2. 9–12 years 3. <9 years).

1–3 (♂) = −14.7 % (ns)

Age

-Finland; Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study

1–3 (♀) = −9.2 % (ns)

-432; 21–30 year.

-Osler (2001) [47]

Odds of low LTPA comparing the two highest groups of parental education to the lowest group (1. ≥ 9 years 2. 8–9 years 3. <7 years).

Odds Ratios (1 vs. 3):

None

-Denmark; offspring of Copenhagen City Heart Study (CCHS).

♂ = 1.3 {0.6; 3.0} (ns)

♀ = 0.5 {0.2; 1.1} (ns)

-317; 19–31 year.

♂ = 0.7 {0.4; 3.2} (ns)

Age, own education, own occupational class, smoking status

♀ = 0.6 {0.2; 2.4} (ns)

-Beunen (2004) [50]

Correlation between sports, leisure-time and counts indices of physical activity and parental education.

r (sport, father) = 0.17 (+)

None

-Belgium; LLSFB

r (sport, mother) = 0.14 (ns)

-166^♂; 40 year.

r (leisure-time, father) = 0.14 (ns)

r (counts, mother) = 0.15 (ns)

Regression coefficients for sport, leisure-time and counts indices of physical activity per increase in years of parental education

β (sport, father) = 0.19 (+)

Stature (sport index)

β (leisure-time, father) = 0.14 (+)

Stature, pulse recovery (leisure-time index)

-Wray (2005) [55]

Odds of low physical activity per unit increase (0–17) in years of parental education.

Odds Ratios:

-US; Health & Retirement Study (HRS); Study of Asset & Health Dynamics (AHEAD)

HRS = 0.964 (+, p ≤ 0.001)

Age, gender, ethnicity, marriage, interactions

AHEAD = 0.878 (+, p ≤ 0.001)

-6106; 51–61 year (HRS), 3636; 70+ Yrs. (AHEAD)

HRS = 0.976 (+, p ≤ 0.05)

As above plus own education, economic resources

AHEAD = 0.910 (+, p ≤ 0.05)

-Bowen (2010) [56]

Prevalence of vigorous exercise in two groups of parental education (1. > 8 years 2. ≤ 8 years).

1–2 (father) = 4 % (+, p ≤ 0.001)

None

-US; HRS,AHEAD & more

1–2 (mother) = 4 % (+, p ≤ 0.001)

-18,465; 51+ Yrs.

-Phillips (2009) [61]

Correlation between exercise kilocalories/week. and years (1–24) of parental education.

r = 0.084 (+)

None

-US; Health & Behaviour Project

-811; 30–54 years.

-Frank (2003) [58]

Prevalence of exercise in six groups of parental education (1. medical school 2. graduate school 3. college graduate 4. some college 5. high school 6. < High school) and three groups of both parent’s education) (1. Both ≥ graduate school 2. mix 3. Both ≤ graduate school).

1–6 (father) = 2 % (ns)

None

-US; Women Physician Health Study

1–6 (mother) = −4 % (ns)

-2884^♀; 30–70 year.

1–3 (both) = 5 % (ns)

-Gall (2010) [64]

Prevalence of LTPA by level of parental education (1. high 2. medium 3. low).

1–3:

None

-Australia; Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study

♂ = 3 % (ns)

♀ = 1 % (ns)

-1973; 26–36 years.