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Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies: arranged by region/country and from older to younger age at measurement of physical activity

From: Childhood socioeconomic position and adult leisure-time physical activity: a systematic review

-1st author (year)

-Description

-Childhood socioeconomic indicator/sb

-Physical activity measurementc

QA scored

-Countrya (birth year/s)

-Age at physical activity assessment

-How these were ascertainedb

-Outcome/s of interestc

-Study name

-Sample size (% female)

-Johnson (2011) [20]

-Scottish birth cohort.

-PO (main occupation), PE, I&O (number of people per room, shared toilet facilities, whether indoor/outdoor toilet).

-Level of physical activities such as household chores, keep-fit, heavy exercise and sport.

3.5

-UK (1936)

-70 years.

-Physical activity six point score.

-Lothian Birth Cohort 1936

-1091 (49.8 %).

-Recalled by SM at age 70.

-Lawlor (2004) [21]

-Cross-section of women recruited from GP lists in 23 British towns.

-PO (longest held occupation).

-Hours per week spent on several types of domestic, recreational and sports activities.

4

-UK (1921–40)

-60–79 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 60–79.

-Physically inactive (<1 h/week. of moderate or vigorous physical activity).

-British Women’s Heart & Health Study (BWHHS)

-3444 (100 %).

-Hillsdon (2008) [22]

-Cross-section of women recruited from GP lists in 23 British towns.

-PO (longest held occupation), I&O (house with bathroom; hot water; shared bedroom, car access, and an index of all the above).

-Hours per week spent on several types of domestic, recreational and sports activities.

5

-UK (1921–40)

-60–79 years.

-Moderate to vigorous physical activity hours/week.

-BWHHS

-4103 (100 %).

-Recalled by SM at age 60–79.

-Watt (2009) [23]

-Cross-section of women recruited from GP lists in 23 British towns.

-PO (longest held occupation), I&O (house with bathroom; hot water; shared bedroom, car access, and an index of all the above).

-Hours per week spent on several types of domestic, recreational and sports activities.

4.5

-UK (1921–40)

-60–79 years.

-Low exercise (<2 h/week. of moderate or vigorous physical activity).

-BWHHS

-3523 (100 %)

-Recalled by SM at age 60–79.

-Ramsay (2009) [24]

-Cross-section of men recruited from GP lists in 24 British towns.

-PO (longest held occupation).

-Hours per week spent on several types of physical activities including walking, cycling and sports.

2.5

-UK (1920s-30s)

-52–74 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 52–74.

-British Regional Heart Study (BRHS)

-5188 (0 %).

-Physically inactive (none or occasional physical activity).

-Wannamethee (1996) [25]

-Cross-section of men recruited from GP lists in 24 British towns.

-PO (longest held occupation).

-No description (reference provided).

5

-UK (1920s-30s)

-40–59 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 52–74.

-Physically active.

-BRHS

-2188 (0 %).

-Stringhini (2013) [26]

-Cohort of civil servants employed in London.

-PO (main occupation).

-Hours per week spent on moderate and vigorous physical activities.

2

-UK (1930–53)

-40–59 years (phase 3).

-Recalled by SM at age 35–55.

-Physically inactive (≤1 h/week. of moderate and ≤1 h/week. of vigorous physical activity).

-Whitehall II (WHII) Study

-6387 (28.5 %).

-Heraclides (2008) [27]

-Cohort of civil servants employed in London.

-PO (main occupation).

-Hours per week spent on several types of domestic, recreational and sports activities.

3.5

-UK (1930–53)

-44–69 years (phase 5).

-Recalled by SM at age 35–55.

-Sedentary lifestyle (low quintile of MET score).

-WHII Study

-4598 (26.8 %).

-Brunner (1999) [28]

-Cohort of civil servants employed in London.

-PO (main occupation).

-Hours per week spent on several types of domestic, recreational and sports activities.

3.5

-UK (1930–53)

-35–55 years (phase 1).

-Recalled by SM at age 35–55.

-Physically inactive (no moderate or vigorous activities).

-WHII study

-6980 (31.6 %).

-Blane (1996) [29]

-Cross-section of men employed in 27 Scottish work places.

-PO (main occupation).

-Hours per week spent on exercise outside work including walking, gardening and golfing.

3

-UK (1908–37)

-35–64 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 35–64.

-West of Scotland Collaborative Study

-5645 (0 %).

-Exercise hours/week.

-Hart (1998) [30]

-Cross-section of men employed in 27 Scottish work places.

-PO (main occupation).

-Hours per week spent on exercise outside work including walking, gardening and golfing.

2.5

-UK (1908–37)

-35–64 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 35–64.

-West of Scotland Collaborative Study

-5567 (0 %).

-Exercise hours/week.

-Popham (2010) [31]

-Cross-section of Scottish residents.

-PO (when SM was aged 14)

-Frequency of several types sports and exercises during previous 4 weeks.

2.5

-UK (1949–68)

-35–54 Years.

-Recalled by SM at age 35–54.

-Sport and exercise (participated ≥ once in sport/exercise at moderate/high intensity for ≥15 min/day).

-2003 Scottish Health Survey

-2770 (% unknown).

-Hart (2008) [32]

-Cross-section of the 1970s Renfrew/Paisley Study offspring.

-PO.

-Frequency of daily activity and physical activity outside work.

5.5

-UK (1937–66)

-30–59 years.

-Reported by parents (SM was aged 6–39).

-No exercise (not very/at all active in daily activities and active for < once/week. or never outside of work).

-Mid span family Study

-2338 (55.5 %).

-Silverwood (2012) [33]

-British birth cohort.

-PO, PE.

-Latent classes for a) walking during work and pleasure b) cycling during work and pleasure and c) LTPA.

5.5

-UK (1946)

-36–53 years.

-Reported by parents (SM was aged 4 and 6).

-MRC National Survey of Health and Development (NSHD)

-3847 (49.6 %).

-LTPA (low, gardening & DIY, sports), walking, cycling (low, high).

-Kuh & Cooper (1992) [34]

-British birth cohort.

-PO, PE.

-Frequency of several types of sports and recreational activities during previous month.

7

-UK (1946)

-36 years.

-Reported by parents (SM was aged 4 and 6).

-High participation in sport and recreational activities.

-MRC NSHD

-2144 (50.3 %).

-Pinto Pereira (2014) [35]

-British birth cohort.

-PO, PE, I&O (index of household amenities: availability of bathroom, indoor lavatory and hot water).

-Frequency of LTPA such as swimming, going for walks.

6

-UK (1958)

-33, 42, 50 years.

-Low LTPA (< once/week).

-National Child Development Study 1958 (NCDS)

-12,776 had ≥ one measure of LTPA.

-Reported by parents at SM’s birth and when aged 7, 11 and 16.

-Cheng & Furnham (2013) [36]

-British birth cohort.

-PO (current or last held occupation).

-Frequency of physical exercise.

3

-UK (1958)

-50 years.

-Reported by parent at SM’s birth.

-Exercise score (6-point scale).

-NCDS

-5921 (49.4 %).

-Juneau (2014) [37]

-British birth cohort.

-PO.

-Frequency of LTPA during the previous 8 weeks.

5

-UK (1970)

-34 years.

-Reported by parents at SM’s birth and when aged 5 and 10 years.

-Estimated LTPA energy expenditure.

-1970 British Cohort Study

-9624 (52.2 %).

-Osler (2008) [38]

-Danish birth cohort of men from Copenhagen.

-PO.

-Frequency of walking, running, cycling and other activities.

6.5

-Denmark (1953)

-51 years.

-Extracted from birth records.

-Sedentary leisure activity (mainly reading, watching TV or having other sedentary activities during leisure).

-Metropolit Birth Cohort

-6292 (0 %).

-Lynch (1997) [39]

-Cross-section of men from Eastern Finland.

-I&O (index of PO, PE, whether family perceived as wealthy, whether family lived on a farm and size of farm).

-Energy expended in LTPA during the previous 12 months, e.g. jogging, swimming, cycling, skiing.

2.5

-Finland (1920s-40s)

-42–60 years.

-Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study

-2682 (0 %).

-Recalled by SM at age 42–60.

-(i) No conditioning activities, (ii) low quartile of conditioning activities.

-Kvaavik (2011) [40]

-Follow-up of Oslo students invited to a health education intervention.

-PE.

-‘How often do you exercise for at least half an hour to the extent that you sweat and/or are short of breath?’

6

-Norway (1964–8)

-25, 33, 40 years.

-Reported by parents (SM aged 11–16).

-Oslo Youth Study

-240, 329, 407.

-LTPA (twice/week).

-Jørgensen (2013) [41]

-Cohort of Danish women employed as social and health care assistants.

-PO (when SM was aged 14).

-Hours per week spent on LTPA.

0.5

-Denmark (≈1971)

-35.4 years (SD = 10.5)

-Recalled by SM at age 35.4.

- Low LTPA (<4 h/week).

-Danish Health Care Worker Cohort

-1661 (100 %).

-Barnekow-Bergkvist (1998) [42]

-Follow-up of Swedish students.

-PO.

-Hours per week spent on LTPA (includes sports, walking, and cycling) in the previous 12 months.

3

-Sweden (1958)

-34 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 34.

-LTPA MET hours/week.

-278 (43.5 %).

-Tammelin (2003) [43]

-Northern Finland birth cohort.

-PO.

-Frequency of light and brisk LTPA.

5.5

-Finland (1966)

-31 years.

-Reported when SM aged 14.

-Physically inactive (brisk LTPA < once/week. and light LTPA <4 times/week).

-North Finland Birth Cohort 1966

-7794 (53 %).

-Makinen (2009) [44]

-Regionally stratified cross-section of Finnish adults.

-PO, PE, I&O (long-term financial problems in family, regular parental unemployment–both before age 16).

-How much do you exercise and strain yourself physically in leisure time?’

3.5

-Finland (1970 & older)

-30+ years.

-Inactive (read, watch TV or do other activities that do not strain me physically); moderately active (walk, cycle or move in other ways for at least 4 h/week).

-Health 2000 Survey

-7112 (55.4 %).

-Recalled by SM at age 30+.

-Wichstrøm (2013) [45]

-Follow-up of students from 67 Norwegian schools.

-PO.

-Hours spent on physical exercise during the previous week.

4.5

-Norway (1973–80)

-25–32 years.

-Reported by SM at age 12–19.

-LTPA hours/week.

-Young in Norway Study

-2890–2923.

-Leino (1999) [46]

-Follow-up of Finnish children and adolescents.

-PE.

-Frequency and duration of exercise used to form an LTPA index.

4

-Finland (1962–71)

-21–30 years.

-Reported by SM at age 9–18.

-Physically inactive (≤25th percentile of LTPA index, range = 0–52).

-Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study

-432 (53.7 %).

-Osler (2001) [47]

-Follow-up of CCHS offspring aged 6–18 at baseline.

-PE.

-Current level of participation in LTPA and whether active in sports.

7

-Denmark (1961–73)

-19–31 years.

-Reported by parents (SM aged 6–18).

-Low LTPA (mostly sitting or light activity for ≥4 h/week. and not active in sports).

-Offspring of Copenhagen City Heart Study (CCHS)

-317 (48.9 %).

  

-Peck (1994) [48]

-Cross-section of employed Swedes.

-PO (during SM’s childhood).

-Regular LTPA (no description).

1.5

-Sweden (1900s-60s)

-16–74 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 16–74.

-No regular LTPA.

-12,695 (50.4 %).

-Regidor (2004) [49]

-Cross-section of an older Spanish population.

-PO.

-Type of physical activity done in spare time or at any time if retired/unemployed.

4.5

-Spain (1940 & older)

-60+ years.

-Recalled by SM at age 60+.

-Physically inactive (only report sedentary activities e.g. reading, watching TV).

-3658 (54.6 %).

-Beunen (2004) [50]

-27-year follow-up of Flemish speaking adolescent Belgian boys.

-PO, PE, I&O (degree of urbanisation).

-Frequency of sports, other leisure-time activities and accelerometer counts of daily physical activity.

5.5

-Belgium (1956)

-40 years.

-Reported by SM at age 14–18.

-Leuven Longitudinal Study of Flemish Boys

-166 (0 %).

-Sport, leisure-time, & counts indices.

-Scheerder (2006) [51]

-20-year follow up of Flemish speaking adolescent Belgian girls.

-I&O (index of PO and PE).

-Hours per week spent on sports during the previous year.

6

-Belgium (1961–7)

-32–41 years.

-Reported by SM at age 12–18.

-Level of sports participation (hours/week./year).

-Leuven Longitudinal Study of Flemish Girls

-257 (100 %).

  

-Kamphuis (2013) [52]

-Cross-section of men living in or near Eindhoven.

-PO (when SM was aged 12).

-Hours per week spent on transport, leisure-time and sports related activities.

2

-Netherlands (1916–51)

-40–75 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 40–75.

-Physically active (≥3.5 h/week. of sports and transport or leisure-time physical activity).

-GLOBE Study

-4894 (0 %)

-van de Mheen (1998) [53]

-Cross-section of adults living in or near Eindhoven.

-PO (when SM was aged 11).

-Leisure-time physical exercise (no description).

3.5

-Netherlands (1910s-60s)

-25–74 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 25–74.

-Frequent LTPA, and no LTPA.

-Longitudinal Study on Socio-Economic Health Differences

-13,854 (% unknown).

-Pudrovska (2013) [54]

-Long-term follow-up of high school graduates from Wisconsin.

-I&O (index of PO, PE, family income, father’s occupational income and father’s occupational education).

-Hours per month spent on light (e.g. walking, gardening, golfing) and vigorous (e.g. aerobics, jogging, swimming) physical activities.

6

-US (1939–40)

-65 years.

-Wisconsin Longitudinal Study

-5778 (54.7 %).

-Reported when SM was aged 17–18.

-Physical activity index.

-Wray (2005) [55]

-Follow-up of middle aged and older US adults.

-PE.

-Whether or not SM is a vigorous exerciser. Includes heavy housework, cycling, aerobics, running, jogging, swimming and physical labour at work.

5

-US (1941 & older).

-51–61 years (HRS); 70+ years (AHEAD).

-Recalled by SM at age 51–61 (HRS) and 70+ (AHEAD).

-Health & Retirement Study (HRS); Study of Asset & Health Dynamics (AHEAD)

-HRS: 6106 (57 %); AHEAD: 3636 (63 %).

-Low physical activity (not exercising ≥3 times/week).

-Bowen (2010) [56]

-Cohort of middle aged and older US adults.

-PO (main occupation), PE.

-Whether or not SM is a vigorous exerciser. Includes heavy housework, cycling, aerobics, running, jogging, swimming and physical labour at work.

3

-US (1941 & older)

-51+ years.

-Recalled by SM at age 51+.

-HRS merged with AHEAD and two other cohorts

-18,465 (60 %).

-Vigorous exercisers (≥3 times/week).

-Carroll (2011) [57]

-Cross-section of Pennsylvanian adults recruited to a Hepatitis B vaccination project.

-I&O (index for every 2 years of childhood: whether parents owned home, number of a) bathrooms, b) people living in the home and c) vehicles owned).

-Paffenbarger physical activity questionnaire (no description).

1

-US (1950s-70s)

-Physical activity kilocalories expended per week.

-Vaccination Immunity Project

-40–60 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 40–60.

-153 (59.8 %).

-Frank (2003) [58]

-Cross-section of women physicians born in the US.

-PE.

-Exercise (no description).

0.5

-US (1930–50)

-30–70 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 30–70.

-Exercising ≥30 min on 3 times per week.

-Women Physician Health Study

-2884 (100 %).

-Tsenkova (2014) [59]

-Cross-section of US adults who participated in a biomarkers study.

-I&O (index of PE, childhood welfare status and financial level growing up).

-‘How often do you engage in vigorous physical activity long enough to work up a sweat (e.g. running/heavy lifting)?’

3

-US (1921–70)

-25–74 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 25–74.

-Midlife in the US Study

-895 (54.6 %)

-Exercise sessions per month.

-Kern (2010) [60]

-Long-term follow-up of Californian children with high IQ.

-I&O (index of PO and PE).

-Avocational activities and hobbies including sport, gardening, music, art, writing, photography.

4.5

-US (1910s)

-25–61 years.

-Reported by parents (SM was aged 11).

-Terman Life Cycle Study

-1114 (50 %).

-Average physical activity METs.

-Phillips (2009) [61]

-Cross-section of Pennsylvanian adults without serious illnesses.

-PE.

-Paffenbarger physical activity questionnaire (no description).

2.5

-US (1940s-70s)

-30–54 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 30–54.

-Physical activity kilocalories expended per week.

-Adult Health and Behaviour Project

-811 (51.4 %).

  

-Schooling (2007) [62]

-Cross-section of Guangzhou community club members.

-I&O (number of parental possessions from a watch, sewing machine and bicycle during SM’s childhood).

-IPAQ used (no description).

3

-China (1955 & older)

-50+ years.

-Inactive, minimally active, and HEPA (vigorous activity ≥3 days/week. at ≥1500 MET minutes/week, or activity 7 days/week. at ≥3000 MET minutes/week).

-Guangzhou Bio-bank Cohort Study (GBCS)

-Recalled by SM at age 50+.

-9748 (71.9 %).

-Elwell-Sutton (2011) [63]

-Cross-section of Guangzhou community club members.

-I&O (number of parental possessions from a watch, sewing machine and bicycle during SM’s childhood).

-IPAQ used (no description).

3

-China (1955 & older)

-50+ years.

-Inactive, minimally active, and HEPA (vigorous activity ≥3 days/week. at ≥1500 MET minutes/week, or activity 7 days/week. at ≥3000 MET minutes/week).

-GBCS

-Recalled by SM at age 50+.

-20,086 (73.2 %).

-Gall (2010) [64]

-20-year follow-up of the Australian Schools Health & Fitness Survey.

-PE.

-Whether or not SM participated in ≥3 h of moderate/vigorous LTPA per week.

4.5

-Australia (1970s)

-26–36 years.

-Recalled by SM at age 26–36.

-LTPA (≥3 h/week).

-Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study

-1973 (52.8 %).

  1. a UK United Kingdom, US United States, Nordic group of countries (Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark) considered as one region
  2. b PO Parental occupation (usually based on father’s occupation, more detail can be found in brackets if provided in the paper), PE Parental education (years and/or level), I&O Indices and other measures of childhood socioeconomic position (SEP), includes (i) indices combining different indicators of childhood SEP and (ii) single measures which are distinct from parental occupation and education, SM Study member
  3. c LTPA Leisure-time Physical Activity, METs Metabolic equivalents, IPAQ International Physical activity Questionnaire, HEPA Health enhancing physical activity: acronym used in the two GBCS papers [62, 63]
  4. d QA score Quality assessment score (average of two assessor’s scores possible values are 0–9)