Table 3 Studies and effect sizes for parental support and child and adolescent physical activity (k = 34)

Barr-Anderson et al. (2010) [72] USA

N = 73

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA and perceived parental support: β = .17, p < .05

.24

18 m, 55 f

Parental Support – aggregated measure (encouragement, coactivity, transportation, watching, inform)

Adapted GLTEQ

10.1 yrs

Child test-retest .88

Hard/strenuous test-retest .63

Moderate test-retest .52

Davison et al. (2012) [73] USA

N = 767

CS

Parent report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA &parental support: r = .20, p < .01 (n = 355)

.27

392 m, 375 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (logistic support, modeling, co-activity, encouragement)

.70*

Adolescent’s MVPA & parental support: r = .36, p < .01 (n = 412)

.49

Age range: 6.0-12.0 yrs & 13.0-19.0 yrs

α = .78

Dowda et al. (2011) [40] USA

N = 369

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (2 wk)

Children’s MVPA & parental support: β = .28

.34

Parental support – aggregated measure (encourage, coactivity, transportation, watching child, providing information)

.80*

175 m, 194 f

Direct observation (OSRAC-P)

4.2 yrs

Test-retest .81 (92% respondents mothers)

Inter-observer .91

Hagger et al. (2009) [74]

N = 840

PRO (5 wks)

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA (UK; n = 210) & parental support: r = .47, p < .01

.55

4 countries: UK, Estonia, Finland, Hungary

380 m, 460 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (provision of opportunities, choices, and options to be active)

Adapted GLTEQ

Children’s MVPA (Estonia; n = 268) & parental support: r = .36, p < .01

.45

Age range: 13.2-15.0 yrs

UK α = .96

UK .77

Children’s MVPA (Finland; n = 127) & parental support: r = .41, p < .01

.51

Estonian α = .94

Estonian .68

Children’s MVPA (Hungary; n = 235) & parental support: r = .20, p < .01

.26

Finland α = .96

Finland .67

Hungary α = .90

Hungary .67

Hamilton & White (2008) [75] Australia

N = 423

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Adolescents’ MVPA & parental support: r = .37, p < .001

.53

172 m, 251 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (co-activity, watch, encouragement, praise, transportation)

.70*

13.5 yrs

.70*

Heitzler et al. (2006) [76] USA

N = 3114

CS

Parent reported

Child self-report

Children’s organized PA & parental support: OR = 1.65, 95% CI 1.45-1.88, p < .001

.30

Age range: 9.0-13.0 yrs

Parental support – aggregated and individually reported (coactivity, watching child, & transportation)

Test-retest .64

Test-retest .65

Heitzler et al. (2010) [43] USA

N = 720

CS

Child report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Adolescents’ MVPA & parental support: r = .19, p < .05

.24

352 m, 268 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, coactivity, watch, praise) α = .80

.80*

14.7 yrs

Hendrie et al. (2011) [44] Australia

N = 106

CS

Parent report

Child self-report

Children’s MVPA & parental support: r = .162; r = .18 when controlled for parent demographic factors)

.22

51 m, 55 f

Parental support – aggregate measure (watching, transportation)

CLASS

8.3 yrs

.70*

α = .79 (92% respondents mothers)

Hennessy et al. (2010) [45] USA

N = 76

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (5 d)

Children’s PA & logistical support: β = .18, p = .12

.26

26 m, 50 f

Logistical support

.70*

9.1 yrs

α = .67

Kim & Cardinal (2010) [77] Korea

N = 1347

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Adolescent PA & parental support: r = .19, p < .01

.22

943 m, 404 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (e.g., encouragement)

GLTEQ

16.4 yrs

Test-retest .86

test-retest .83

Labree et al. (2014) [47] Netherlands

N = 1943

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA & parental support: r = .21, p < .05

.31

970 m, 973 f

Parental support

.70*

8.4 yrs

α = .64 (respondents predominantly mothers)

Langer et al. (2014) [78] USA

N = 421

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Children’s MVPA & parental support: r = .20, p < .001

.25

213 m, 208 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, co-activity, transportation, watch)

.80*

6.9 yrs

α = .77 (93% respondents mothers)

Lawman & Wilson (2014) [79] USA

N = 181

CS

Child report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Adolescent’s MVPA & parental support: r = .09

.11

72 m, 109 f

Parental support – aggregated measure

.80*

13.3 yrs

α = .89

Lei et al. (2004) [48] Taiwan

N = 798

CS

Child report

Child report

Children’s MVPA & parental support: r = .12, p < .001

.17

Age range: 12–18 yrs

Parental support

7-day PA survey

.75

.70*

Loprinzi & Trost (2010) [49] Australia

N = 156

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA (at home) & parental support: β = .16, p < .05

.12

75 m, 81 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encourage, co-activity, transportation, watch, inform)

PAEC-Q (PA at home)

Children’s PA (daycare) & parental support: β = .01

3.7 yrs

test-retest .81

.70*

Mean β = .09

Accelerometer (2 d)

(PA during daycare)

.70*

Loprinzi et al. (2013) [49] USA

N = 176

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s MVPA & parental support: β = .29, p < .05

.40

Parental support – aggregated measure (encourage, co-activity, transportation, watch, inform)

PAEC-Q

82 m, 94 f

4.0 yrs

α = .75 (85% respondents mothers)

.70*

Ommundsen et al. (2006) [80] Norway

N = 760

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s PA & parental support: r = .40, p < .001

.57

379 m, 381 f

Parental support - aggregated measure (encouragement, co-activity)

PEACH

9.0 & 15 yr olds

.70*

.70*

Østbyte et al. (2013) [54] USA

N = 208

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (7 d)

Children’s PA & parental support: r = .26, p < .05

.34

116 m, 92 f

Parental support – aggregated measure

.80*

2-5 yrs

α = .75 (all mothers)

Patnode et al. (2010) [55] USA

N = 294

CS

Child reported aggregate measures (encouragement, watch)

Accelerometer (7 d)

Adolescents’ MVPA & parental support: r = .15, p < .05

.19

149 m, 145 f

α = .76

.80*

15.4 yrs

Pfeiffer et al. (2009) [57] USA

N = 331

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (8–10 d)

Children’s’ MVPA & family support: r = .04

.05

169 m, 162 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, co-activity, transportation, watch, inform)

.80*

.81 (94% respondents mothers)

4.3 yrs

Prochaska et al. (2002) [81] USA

N = 138

CS

Child report

Activity monitor (5 d)

Children’s PA (monitor) & parental support: r = .12

.15

48 m, 90 f

Parental support – aggregated & individual measures: Encouragement, coactivity, transportation, watch, praise

.70*

12.1 yrs

ICC = .88

α = .77

Schaben et al. (2006) [82] USA

N = 1995

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Adolescents’ MVPA (middle school) & parental support: r = .31

.44

1033 m, 962 f

Parental support –aggregated measure (role modeling, encouragement, co-activity, facilitation)

PAQ

Adolescents’ MVPA (high school) & parental support: r = .38

14.7 yrs

α = 81

Test-retest males

Mean r = .35

.75

Test-retest females .82

Schary et al. (2012) [83] USA

N = 195

CS

Parent report

Parent report

Children’s PA & parental support: r = .32, p < .001

.44

Parental support – aggregated & individual measures (encouragement, transportation, co-activity, watch, inform)

PAEC-Q

90 m, 105 f

4.0 yrs

α = .76 (86% respondents mothers)

.70*

Taylor et al., (2002) [84] USA

N = 509

CS

Child report

Child self-report & parent report

Children’s PA & family support: partial r = .43, p < .001 (<85^th percentile BMI); partial r = .13, p = .45 (>85^th percentile BMI)

.48

231 m, 278 f

Family support – aggregated measure (encouragement, co-activity, transportation, watch)

.70*

Age range: 12–18 yrs

α = .81

Mean r = .38

Test-retest .88

Trost et al. (2003) [64] USA

N = 380

CS

Parent report

Child self-report

Adolescents’ PA & parental support: β = .24

.30

171 m, 209 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, co-activity, transportation, watch, inform)

Test-retest .79

14.0 yrs

α = .78

Test-retest .81

Verloigne et al. (2014) [85] Australia

N = 134

CS

Parent report

Accelerometer (4 d)

Adolescent MVPA & logistic support: r = .02

.03

66 m, 68 f

Parental support (logistic support – transportation, financial support)

.70*

14.1 yrs

α = .90 (84% respondents mothers)

Welk et al. (2003) [66] USA

N = 994

CS

Child report

Child self-report

Children’s PA & parental support: r = .51

.70

505 m, 489 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, involvement, facilitation)

PAQ-C

10.0 yrs

α = .76

.70*

Williams & Mummery (2011) [67] Australia

N = 295

CS

Parent report

Adolescent PARQ

Adolescents’ MVPA & parental support: OR = 7.38, 95% CI 2.98-18.29*

.95

111 m, 184 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, watch, transportation, inform, co-activity)

.70*

*adjusted for other variables

15.1 yrs

.70* (67% respondents mothers)

Zecevic et al. (2010) [68] Canada

N = 102

CS

Parent report

Parental report

Children’s PA & parental support: OR = 2.18, p < .10; r = .2976

.41

54 m, 48 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, co-activity, transportation, watch, inform)

.70*

3.8 yrs

α = .75

Zhang et al. (2012) [86] USA

N = 285

CS

Child report

PAQ-C

Adolescent’s MVPA & parental support: r = .43, p < .01

.55

142 m, 143 f

Parental support – aggregated measure (encouragement, coactivity, transportation, praise)

.75

13.4 yrs

.81